1PERLDSC(1)             Perl Programmers Reference Guide             PERLDSC(1)
2
3
4

NAME

6       perldsc - Perl Data Structures Cookbook
7

DESCRIPTION

9       Perl lets us have complex data structures.  You can write something
10       like this and all of a sudden, you'd have an array with three
11       dimensions!
12
13           for my $x (1 .. 10) {
14               for my $y (1 .. 10) {
15                   for my $z (1 .. 10) {
16                       $AoA[$x][$y][$z] =
17                           $x ** $y + $z;
18                   }
19               }
20           }
21
22       Alas, however simple this may appear, underneath it's a much more
23       elaborate construct than meets the eye!
24
25       How do you print it out?  Why can't you say just "print @AoA"?  How do
26       you sort it?  How can you pass it to a function or get one of these
27       back from a function?  Is it an object?  Can you save it to disk to
28       read back later?  How do you access whole rows or columns of that
29       matrix?  Do all the values have to be numeric?
30
31       As you see, it's quite easy to become confused.  While some small
32       portion of the blame for this can be attributed to the reference-based
33       implementation, it's really more due to a lack of existing
34       documentation with examples designed for the beginner.
35
36       This document is meant to be a detailed but understandable treatment of
37       the many different sorts of data structures you might want to develop.
38       It should also serve as a cookbook of examples.  That way, when you
39       need to create one of these complex data structures, you can just
40       pinch, pilfer, or purloin a drop-in example from here.
41
42       Let's look at each of these possible constructs in detail.  There are
43       separate sections on each of the following:
44
45       ·    arrays of arrays
46
47       ·    hashes of arrays
48
49       ·    arrays of hashes
50
51       ·    hashes of hashes
52
53       ·    more elaborate constructs
54
55       But for now, let's look at general issues common to all these types of
56       data structures.
57

REFERENCES

59       The most important thing to understand about all data structures in
60       Perl--including multidimensional arrays--is that even though they might
61       appear otherwise, Perl @ARRAYs and %HASHes are all internally one-
62       dimensional.  They can hold only scalar values (meaning a string,
63       number, or a reference).  They cannot directly contain other arrays or
64       hashes, but instead contain references to other arrays or hashes.
65
66       You can't use a reference to an array or hash in quite the same way
67       that you would a real array or hash.  For C or C++ programmers unused
68       to distinguishing between arrays and pointers to the same, this can be
69       confusing.  If so, just think of it as the difference between a
70       structure and a pointer to a structure.
71
72       You can (and should) read more about references in perlref.  Briefly,
73       references are rather like pointers that know what they point to.
74       (Objects are also a kind of reference, but we won't be needing them
75       right away--if ever.)  This means that when you have something which
76       looks to you like an access to a two-or-more-dimensional array and/or
77       hash, what's really going on is that the base type is merely a one-
78       dimensional entity that contains references to the next level.  It's
79       just that you can use it as though it were a two-dimensional one.  This
80       is actually the way almost all C multidimensional arrays work as well.
81
82           $array[7][12]                       # array of arrays
83           $array[7]{string}                   # array of hashes
84           $hash{string}[7]                    # hash of arrays
85           $hash{string}{'another string'}     # hash of hashes
86
87       Now, because the top level contains only references, if you try to
88       print out your array in with a simple print() function, you'll get
89       something that doesn't look very nice, like this:
90
91           my @AoA = ( [2, 3], [4, 5, 7], [0] );
92           print $AoA[1][2];
93         7
94           print @AoA;
95         ARRAY(0x83c38)ARRAY(0x8b194)ARRAY(0x8b1d0)
96
97       That's because Perl doesn't (ever) implicitly dereference your
98       variables.  If you want to get at the thing a reference is referring
99       to, then you have to do this yourself using either prefix typing
100       indicators, like "${$blah}", "@{$blah}", "@{$blah[$i]}", or else
101       postfix pointer arrows, like "$a->[3]", "$h->{fred}", or even
102       "$ob->method()->[3]".
103

COMMON MISTAKES

105       The two most common mistakes made in constructing something like an
106       array of arrays is either accidentally counting the number of elements
107       or else taking a reference to the same memory location repeatedly.
108       Here's the case where you just get the count instead of a nested array:
109
110           for my $i (1..10) {
111               my @array = somefunc($i);
112               $AoA[$i] = @array;      # WRONG!
113           }
114
115       That's just the simple case of assigning an array to a scalar and
116       getting its element count.  If that's what you really and truly want,
117       then you might do well to consider being a tad more explicit about it,
118       like this:
119
120           for my $i (1..10) {
121               my @array = somefunc($i);
122               $counts[$i] = scalar @array;
123           }
124
125       Here's the case of taking a reference to the same memory location again
126       and again:
127
128           # Either without strict or having an outer-scope my @array;
129           # declaration.
130
131           for my $i (1..10) {
132               @array = somefunc($i);
133               $AoA[$i] = \@array;     # WRONG!
134           }
135
136       So, what's the big problem with that?  It looks right, doesn't it?
137       After all, I just told you that you need an array of references, so by
138       golly, you've made me one!
139
140       Unfortunately, while this is true, it's still broken.  All the
141       references in @AoA refer to the very same place, and they will
142       therefore all hold whatever was last in @array!  It's similar to the
143       problem demonstrated in the following C program:
144
145           #include <pwd.h>
146           main() {
147               struct passwd *getpwnam(), *rp, *dp;
148               rp = getpwnam("root");
149               dp = getpwnam("daemon");
150
151               printf("daemon name is %s\nroot name is %s\n",
152                       dp->pw_name, rp->pw_name);
153           }
154
155       Which will print
156
157           daemon name is daemon
158           root name is daemon
159
160       The problem is that both "rp" and "dp" are pointers to the same
161       location in memory!  In C, you'd have to remember to malloc() yourself
162       some new memory.  In Perl, you'll want to use the array constructor
163       "[]" or the hash constructor "{}" instead.   Here's the right way to do
164       the preceding broken code fragments:
165
166           # Either without strict or having an outer-scope my @array;
167           # declaration.
168
169           for my $i (1..10) {
170               @array = somefunc($i);
171               $AoA[$i] = [ @array ];
172           }
173
174       The square brackets make a reference to a new array with a copy of
175       what's in @array at the time of the assignment.  This is what you want.
176
177       Note that this will produce something similar, but it's much harder to
178       read:
179
180           # Either without strict or having an outer-scope my @array;
181           # declaration.
182           for my $i (1..10) {
183               @array = 0 .. $i;
184               @{$AoA[$i]} = @array;
185           }
186
187       Is it the same?  Well, maybe so--and maybe not.  The subtle difference
188       is that when you assign something in square brackets, you know for sure
189       it's always a brand new reference with a new copy of the data.
190       Something else could be going on in this new case with the
191       "@{$AoA[$i]}" dereference on the left-hand-side of the assignment.  It
192       all depends on whether $AoA[$i] had been undefined to start with, or
193       whether it already contained a reference.  If you had already populated
194       @AoA with references, as in
195
196           $AoA[3] = \@another_array;
197
198       Then the assignment with the indirection on the left-hand-side would
199       use the existing reference that was already there:
200
201           @{$AoA[3]} = @array;
202
203       Of course, this would have the "interesting" effect of clobbering
204       @another_array.  (Have you ever noticed how when a programmer says
205       something is "interesting", that rather than meaning "intriguing",
206       they're disturbingly more apt to mean that it's "annoying",
207       "difficult", or both?  :-)
208
209       So just remember always to use the array or hash constructors with "[]"
210       or "{}", and you'll be fine, although it's not always optimally
211       efficient.
212
213       Surprisingly, the following dangerous-looking construct will actually
214       work out fine:
215
216           for my $i (1..10) {
217               my @array = somefunc($i);
218               $AoA[$i] = \@array;
219           }
220
221       That's because my() is more of a run-time statement than it is a
222       compile-time declaration per se.  This means that the my() variable is
223       remade afresh each time through the loop.  So even though it looks as
224       though you stored the same variable reference each time, you actually
225       did not!  This is a subtle distinction that can produce more efficient
226       code at the risk of misleading all but the most experienced of
227       programmers.  So I usually advise against teaching it to beginners.  In
228       fact, except for passing arguments to functions, I seldom like to see
229       the gimme-a-reference operator (backslash) used much at all in code.
230       Instead, I advise beginners that they (and most of the rest of us)
231       should try to use the much more easily understood constructors "[]" and
232       "{}" instead of relying upon lexical (or dynamic) scoping and hidden
233       reference-counting to do the right thing behind the scenes.
234
235       In summary:
236
237           $AoA[$i] = [ @array ];     # usually best
238           $AoA[$i] = \@array;        # perilous; just how my() was that array?
239           @{ $AoA[$i] } = @array;    # way too tricky for most programmers
240

CAVEAT ON PRECEDENCE

242       Speaking of things like "@{$AoA[$i]}", the following are actually the
243       same thing:
244
245           $aref->[2][2]       # clear
246           $$aref[2][2]        # confusing
247
248       That's because Perl's precedence rules on its five prefix dereferencers
249       (which look like someone swearing: "$ @ * % &") make them bind more
250       tightly than the postfix subscripting brackets or braces!  This will no
251       doubt come as a great shock to the C or C++ programmer, who is quite
252       accustomed to using *a[i] to mean what's pointed to by the i'th element
253       of "a".  That is, they first take the subscript, and only then
254       dereference the thing at that subscript.  That's fine in C, but this
255       isn't C.
256
257       The seemingly equivalent construct in Perl, $$aref[$i] first does the
258       deref of $aref, making it take $aref as a reference to an array, and
259       then dereference that, and finally tell you the i'th value of the array
260       pointed to by $AoA. If you wanted the C notion, you'd have to write
261       "${$AoA[$i]}" to force the $AoA[$i] to get evaluated first before the
262       leading "$" dereferencer.
263

WHY YOU SHOULD ALWAYS "use strict"

265       If this is starting to sound scarier than it's worth, relax.  Perl has
266       some features to help you avoid its most common pitfalls.  The best way
267       to avoid getting confused is to start every program like this:
268
269           #!/usr/bin/perl -w
270           use strict;
271
272       This way, you'll be forced to declare all your variables with my() and
273       also disallow accidental "symbolic dereferencing".  Therefore if you'd
274       done this:
275
276           my $aref = [
277               [ "fred", "barney", "pebbles", "bambam", "dino", ],
278               [ "homer", "bart", "marge", "maggie", ],
279               [ "george", "jane", "elroy", "judy", ],
280           ];
281
282           print $aref[2][2];
283
284       The compiler would immediately flag that as an error at compile time,
285       because you were accidentally accessing @aref, an undeclared variable,
286       and it would thereby remind you to write instead:
287
288           print $aref->[2][2]
289

DEBUGGING

291       You can use the debugger's "x" command to dump out complex data
292       structures.  For example, given the assignment to $AoA above, here's
293       the debugger output:
294
295           DB<1> x $AoA
296           $AoA = ARRAY(0x13b5a0)
297              0  ARRAY(0x1f0a24)
298                 0  'fred'
299                 1  'barney'
300                 2  'pebbles'
301                 3  'bambam'
302                 4  'dino'
303              1  ARRAY(0x13b558)
304                 0  'homer'
305                 1  'bart'
306                 2  'marge'
307                 3  'maggie'
308              2  ARRAY(0x13b540)
309                 0  'george'
310                 1  'jane'
311                 2  'elroy'
312                 3  'judy'
313

CODE EXAMPLES

315       Presented with little comment (these will get their own manpages
316       someday) here are short code examples illustrating access of various
317       types of data structures.
318

ARRAYS OF ARRAYS

320   Declaration of an ARRAY OF ARRAYS
321        @AoA = (
322               [ "fred", "barney" ],
323               [ "george", "jane", "elroy" ],
324               [ "homer", "marge", "bart" ],
325             );
326
327   Generation of an ARRAY OF ARRAYS
328        # reading from file
329        while ( <> ) {
330            push @AoA, [ split ];
331        }
332
333        # calling a function
334        for $i ( 1 .. 10 ) {
335            $AoA[$i] = [ somefunc($i) ];
336        }
337
338        # using temp vars
339        for $i ( 1 .. 10 ) {
340            @tmp = somefunc($i);
341            $AoA[$i] = [ @tmp ];
342        }
343
344        # add to an existing row
345        push @{ $AoA[0] }, "wilma", "betty";
346
347   Access and Printing of an ARRAY OF ARRAYS
348        # one element
349        $AoA[0][0] = "Fred";
350
351        # another element
352        $AoA[1][1] =~ s/(\w)/\u$1/;
353
354        # print the whole thing with refs
355        for $aref ( @AoA ) {
356            print "\t [ @$aref ],\n";
357        }
358
359        # print the whole thing with indices
360        for $i ( 0 .. $#AoA ) {
361            print "\t [ @{$AoA[$i]} ],\n";
362        }
363
364        # print the whole thing one at a time
365        for $i ( 0 .. $#AoA ) {
366            for $j ( 0 .. $#{ $AoA[$i] } ) {
367                print "elt $i $j is $AoA[$i][$j]\n";
368            }
369        }
370

HASHES OF ARRAYS

372   Declaration of a HASH OF ARRAYS
373        %HoA = (
374               flintstones        => [ "fred", "barney" ],
375               jetsons            => [ "george", "jane", "elroy" ],
376               simpsons           => [ "homer", "marge", "bart" ],
377             );
378
379   Generation of a HASH OF ARRAYS
380        # reading from file
381        # flintstones: fred barney wilma dino
382        while ( <> ) {
383            next unless s/^(.*?):\s*//;
384            $HoA{$1} = [ split ];
385        }
386
387        # reading from file; more temps
388        # flintstones: fred barney wilma dino
389        while ( $line = <> ) {
390            ($who, $rest) = split /:\s*/, $line, 2;
391            @fields = split ' ', $rest;
392            $HoA{$who} = [ @fields ];
393        }
394
395        # calling a function that returns a list
396        for $group ( "simpsons", "jetsons", "flintstones" ) {
397            $HoA{$group} = [ get_family($group) ];
398        }
399
400        # likewise, but using temps
401        for $group ( "simpsons", "jetsons", "flintstones" ) {
402            @members = get_family($group);
403            $HoA{$group} = [ @members ];
404        }
405
406        # append new members to an existing family
407        push @{ $HoA{"flintstones"} }, "wilma", "betty";
408
409   Access and Printing of a HASH OF ARRAYS
410        # one element
411        $HoA{flintstones}[0] = "Fred";
412
413        # another element
414        $HoA{simpsons}[1] =~ s/(\w)/\u$1/;
415
416        # print the whole thing
417        foreach $family ( keys %HoA ) {
418            print "$family: @{ $HoA{$family} }\n"
419        }
420
421        # print the whole thing with indices
422        foreach $family ( keys %HoA ) {
423            print "family: ";
424            foreach $i ( 0 .. $#{ $HoA{$family} } ) {
425                print " $i = $HoA{$family}[$i]";
426            }
427            print "\n";
428        }
429
430        # print the whole thing sorted by number of members
431        foreach $family ( sort { @{$HoA{$b}} <=> @{$HoA{$a}} } keys %HoA ) {
432            print "$family: @{ $HoA{$family} }\n"
433        }
434
435        # print the whole thing sorted by number of members and name
436        foreach $family ( sort {
437                                   @{$HoA{$b}} <=> @{$HoA{$a}}
438                                               ||
439                                           $a cmp $b
440                   } keys %HoA )
441        {
442            print "$family: ", join(", ", sort @{ $HoA{$family} }), "\n";
443        }
444

ARRAYS OF HASHES

446   Declaration of an ARRAY OF HASHES
447        @AoH = (
448               {
449                   Lead     => "fred",
450                   Friend   => "barney",
451               },
452               {
453                   Lead     => "george",
454                   Wife     => "jane",
455                   Son      => "elroy",
456               },
457               {
458                   Lead     => "homer",
459                   Wife     => "marge",
460                   Son      => "bart",
461               }
462         );
463
464   Generation of an ARRAY OF HASHES
465        # reading from file
466        # format: LEAD=fred FRIEND=barney
467        while ( <> ) {
468            $rec = {};
469            for $field ( split ) {
470                ($key, $value) = split /=/, $field;
471                $rec->{$key} = $value;
472            }
473            push @AoH, $rec;
474        }
475
476
477        # reading from file
478        # format: LEAD=fred FRIEND=barney
479        # no temp
480        while ( <> ) {
481            push @AoH, { split /[\s+=]/ };
482        }
483
484        # calling a function  that returns a key/value pair list, like
485        # "lead","fred","daughter","pebbles"
486        while ( %fields = getnextpairset() ) {
487            push @AoH, { %fields };
488        }
489
490        # likewise, but using no temp vars
491        while (<>) {
492            push @AoH, { parsepairs($_) };
493        }
494
495        # add key/value to an element
496        $AoH[0]{pet} = "dino";
497        $AoH[2]{pet} = "santa's little helper";
498
499   Access and Printing of an ARRAY OF HASHES
500        # one element
501        $AoH[0]{lead} = "fred";
502
503        # another element
504        $AoH[1]{lead} =~ s/(\w)/\u$1/;
505
506        # print the whole thing with refs
507        for $href ( @AoH ) {
508            print "{ ";
509            for $role ( keys %$href ) {
510                print "$role=$href->{$role} ";
511            }
512            print "}\n";
513        }
514
515        # print the whole thing with indices
516        for $i ( 0 .. $#AoH ) {
517            print "$i is { ";
518            for $role ( keys %{ $AoH[$i] } ) {
519                print "$role=$AoH[$i]{$role} ";
520            }
521            print "}\n";
522        }
523
524        # print the whole thing one at a time
525        for $i ( 0 .. $#AoH ) {
526            for $role ( keys %{ $AoH[$i] } ) {
527                print "elt $i $role is $AoH[$i]{$role}\n";
528            }
529        }
530

HASHES OF HASHES

532   Declaration of a HASH OF HASHES
533        %HoH = (
534               flintstones => {
535                       lead      => "fred",
536                       pal       => "barney",
537               },
538               jetsons     => {
539                       lead      => "george",
540                       wife      => "jane",
541                       "his boy" => "elroy",
542               },
543               simpsons    => {
544                       lead      => "homer",
545                       wife      => "marge",
546                       kid       => "bart",
547               },
548        );
549
550   Generation of a HASH OF HASHES
551        # reading from file
552        # flintstones: lead=fred pal=barney wife=wilma pet=dino
553        while ( <> ) {
554            next unless s/^(.*?):\s*//;
555            $who = $1;
556            for $field ( split ) {
557                ($key, $value) = split /=/, $field;
558                $HoH{$who}{$key} = $value;
559            }
560
561
562        # reading from file; more temps
563        while ( <> ) {
564            next unless s/^(.*?):\s*//;
565            $who = $1;
566            $rec = {};
567            $HoH{$who} = $rec;
568            for $field ( split ) {
569                ($key, $value) = split /=/, $field;
570                $rec->{$key} = $value;
571            }
572        }
573
574        # calling a function  that returns a key,value hash
575        for $group ( "simpsons", "jetsons", "flintstones" ) {
576            $HoH{$group} = { get_family($group) };
577        }
578
579        # likewise, but using temps
580        for $group ( "simpsons", "jetsons", "flintstones" ) {
581            %members = get_family($group);
582            $HoH{$group} = { %members };
583        }
584
585        # append new members to an existing family
586        %new_folks = (
587            wife => "wilma",
588            pet  => "dino",
589        );
590
591        for $what (keys %new_folks) {
592            $HoH{flintstones}{$what} = $new_folks{$what};
593        }
594
595   Access and Printing of a HASH OF HASHES
596        # one element
597        $HoH{flintstones}{wife} = "wilma";
598
599        # another element
600        $HoH{simpsons}{lead} =~ s/(\w)/\u$1/;
601
602        # print the whole thing
603        foreach $family ( keys %HoH ) {
604            print "$family: { ";
605            for $role ( keys %{ $HoH{$family} } ) {
606                print "$role=$HoH{$family}{$role} ";
607            }
608            print "}\n";
609        }
610
611        # print the whole thing  somewhat sorted
612        foreach $family ( sort keys %HoH ) {
613            print "$family: { ";
614            for $role ( sort keys %{ $HoH{$family} } ) {
615                print "$role=$HoH{$family}{$role} ";
616            }
617            print "}\n";
618        }
619
620
621        # print the whole thing sorted by number of members
622        foreach $family ( sort { keys %{$HoH{$b}} <=> keys %{$HoH{$a}} }
623                                                                    keys %HoH )
624        {
625            print "$family: { ";
626            for $role ( sort keys %{ $HoH{$family} } ) {
627                print "$role=$HoH{$family}{$role} ";
628            }
629            print "}\n";
630        }
631
632        # establish a sort order (rank) for each role
633        $i = 0;
634        for ( qw(lead wife son daughter pal pet) ) { $rank{$_} = ++$i }
635
636        # now print the whole thing sorted by number of members
637        foreach $family ( sort { keys %{ $HoH{$b} } <=> keys %{ $HoH{$a} } }
638                                                                    keys %HoH )
639        {
640            print "$family: { ";
641            # and print these according to rank order
642            for $role ( sort { $rank{$a} <=> $rank{$b} }
643                                                      keys %{ $HoH{$family} } )
644            {
645                print "$role=$HoH{$family}{$role} ";
646            }
647            print "}\n";
648        }
649

MORE ELABORATE RECORDS

651   Declaration of MORE ELABORATE RECORDS
652       Here's a sample showing how to create and use a record whose fields are
653       of many different sorts:
654
655            $rec = {
656                TEXT      => $string,
657                SEQUENCE  => [ @old_values ],
658                LOOKUP    => { %some_table },
659                THATCODE  => \&some_function,
660                THISCODE  => sub { $_[0] ** $_[1] },
661                HANDLE    => \*STDOUT,
662            };
663
664            print $rec->{TEXT};
665
666            print $rec->{SEQUENCE}[0];
667            $last = pop @ { $rec->{SEQUENCE} };
668
669            print $rec->{LOOKUP}{"key"};
670            ($first_k, $first_v) = each %{ $rec->{LOOKUP} };
671
672            $answer = $rec->{THATCODE}->($arg);
673            $answer = $rec->{THISCODE}->($arg1, $arg2);
674
675            # careful of extra block braces on fh ref
676            print { $rec->{HANDLE} } "a string\n";
677
678            use FileHandle;
679            $rec->{HANDLE}->autoflush(1);
680            $rec->{HANDLE}->print(" a string\n");
681
682   Declaration of a HASH OF COMPLEX RECORDS
683            %TV = (
684               flintstones => {
685                   series   => "flintstones",
686                   nights   => [ qw(monday thursday friday) ],
687                   members  => [
688                       { name => "fred",    role => "lead", age  => 36, },
689                       { name => "wilma",   role => "wife", age  => 31, },
690                       { name => "pebbles", role => "kid",  age  =>  4, },
691                   ],
692               },
693
694               jetsons     => {
695                   series   => "jetsons",
696                   nights   => [ qw(wednesday saturday) ],
697                   members  => [
698                       { name => "george",  role => "lead", age  => 41, },
699                       { name => "jane",    role => "wife", age  => 39, },
700                       { name => "elroy",   role => "kid",  age  =>  9, },
701                   ],
702                },
703
704               simpsons    => {
705                   series   => "simpsons",
706                   nights   => [ qw(monday) ],
707                   members  => [
708                       { name => "homer", role => "lead", age  => 34, },
709                       { name => "marge", role => "wife", age => 37, },
710                       { name => "bart",  role => "kid",  age  =>  11, },
711                   ],
712                },
713             );
714
715   Generation of a HASH OF COMPLEX RECORDS
716            # reading from file
717            # this is most easily done by having the file itself be
718            # in the raw data format as shown above.  perl is happy
719            # to parse complex data structures if declared as data, so
720            # sometimes it's easiest to do that
721
722            # here's a piece by piece build up
723            $rec = {};
724            $rec->{series} = "flintstones";
725            $rec->{nights} = [ find_days() ];
726
727            @members = ();
728            # assume this file in field=value syntax
729            while (<>) {
730                %fields = split /[\s=]+/;
731                push @members, { %fields };
732            }
733            $rec->{members} = [ @members ];
734
735            # now remember the whole thing
736            $TV{ $rec->{series} } = $rec;
737
738            ###########################################################
739            # now, you might want to make interesting extra fields that
740            # include pointers back into the same data structure so if
741            # change one piece, it changes everywhere, like for example
742            # if you wanted a {kids} field that was a reference
743            # to an array of the kids' records without having duplicate
744            # records and thus update problems.
745            ###########################################################
746            foreach $family (keys %TV) {
747                $rec = $TV{$family}; # temp pointer
748                @kids = ();
749                for $person ( @{ $rec->{members} } ) {
750                    if ($person->{role} =~ /kid|son|daughter/) {
751                        push @kids, $person;
752                    }
753                }
754                # REMEMBER: $rec and $TV{$family} point to same data!!
755                $rec->{kids} = [ @kids ];
756            }
757
758            # you copied the array, but the array itself contains pointers
759            # to uncopied objects. this means that if you make bart get
760            # older via
761
762            $TV{simpsons}{kids}[0]{age}++;
763
764            # then this would also change in
765            print $TV{simpsons}{members}[2]{age};
766
767            # because $TV{simpsons}{kids}[0] and $TV{simpsons}{members}[2]
768            # both point to the same underlying anonymous hash table
769
770            # print the whole thing
771            foreach $family ( keys %TV ) {
772                print "the $family";
773                print " is on during @{ $TV{$family}{nights} }\n";
774                print "its members are:\n";
775                for $who ( @{ $TV{$family}{members} } ) {
776                    print " $who->{name} ($who->{role}), age $who->{age}\n";
777                }
778                print "it turns out that $TV{$family}{lead} has ";
779                print scalar ( @{ $TV{$family}{kids} } ), " kids named ";
780                print join (", ", map { $_->{name} } @{ $TV{$family}{kids} } );
781                print "\n";
782            }
783

Database Ties

785       You cannot easily tie a multilevel data structure (such as a hash of
786       hashes) to a dbm file.  The first problem is that all but GDBM and
787       Berkeley DB have size limitations, but beyond that, you also have
788       problems with how references are to be represented on disk.  One
789       experimental module that does partially attempt to address this need is
790       the MLDBM module.  Check your nearest CPAN site as described in
791       perlmodlib for source code to MLDBM.
792

SEE ALSO

794       perlref, perllol, perldata, perlobj
795

AUTHOR

797       Tom Christiansen <tchrist@perl.com>
798
799
800
801perl v5.28.2                      2018-03-01                        PERLDSC(1)
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