1PERLREF(1) Perl Programmers Reference Guide PERLREF(1)
2
6 perlref - Perl references and nested data structures
7
9 This is complete documentation about all aspects of references. For a
10 shorter, tutorial introduction to just the essential features, see
11 perlreftut.
12
14 Before release 5 of Perl it was difficult to represent complex data
15 structures, because all references had to be symbolic--and even then it
16 was difficult to refer to a variable instead of a symbol table entry.
17 Perl now not only makes it easier to use symbolic references to
18 variables, but also lets you have "hard" references to any piece of
19 data or code. Any scalar may hold a hard reference. Because arrays
20 and hashes contain scalars, you can now easily build arrays of arrays,
21 arrays of hashes, hashes of arrays, arrays of hashes of functions, and
22 so on.
23 Hard references are smart--they keep track of reference counts for you,
25 automatically freeing the thing referred to when its reference count
26 goes to zero. (Reference counts for values in self-referential or
27 cyclic data structures may not go to zero without a little help; see
28 "Circular References" for a detailed explanation.) If that thing
29 happens to be an object, the object is destructed. See perlobj for
30 more about objects. (In a sense, everything in Perl is an object, but
31 we usually reserve the word for references to objects that have been
32 officially "blessed" into a class package.)
33 Symbolic references are names of variables or other objects, just as a
35 symbolic link in a Unix filesystem contains merely the name of a file.
36 The *glob notation is something of a symbolic reference. (Symbolic
37 references are sometimes called "soft references", but please don't
38 call them that; references are confusing enough without useless
39 synonyms.)
40 In contrast, hard references are more like hard links in a Unix file
42 system: They are used to access an underlying object without concern
43 for what its (other) name is. When the word "reference" is used
44 without an adjective, as in the following paragraph, it is usually
45 talking about a hard reference.
46 References are easy to use in Perl. There is just one overriding
48 principle: in general, Perl does no implicit referencing or
49 dereferencing. When a scalar is holding a reference, it always behaves
50 as a simple scalar. It doesn't magically start being an array or hash
51 or subroutine; you have to tell it explicitly to do so, by
52 dereferencing it.
53 Making References
55 References can be created in several ways.
56 Backslash Operator
58 By using the backslash operator on a variable, subroutine, or value.
60 (This works much like the & (address-of) operator in C.) This
61 typically creates another reference to a variable, because there's
62 already a reference to the variable in the symbol table. But the
63 symbol table reference might go away, and you'll still have the
64 reference that the backslash returned. Here are some examples:
65 $scalarref = \$foo;
67 $arrayref = \@ARGV;
68 $hashref = \%ENV;
69 $coderef = \&handler;
70 $globref = \*foo;
71 It isn't possible to create a true reference to an IO handle
73 (filehandle or dirhandle) using the backslash operator. The most you
74 can get is a reference to a typeglob, which is actually a complete
75 symbol table entry. But see the explanation of the *foo{THING} syntax
76 below. However, you can still use type globs and globrefs as though
77 they were IO handles.
78 Square Brackets
80 A reference to an anonymous array can be created using square brackets:
82 $arrayref = [1, 2, ['a', 'b', 'c']];
84 Here we've created a reference to an anonymous array of three elements
86 whose final element is itself a reference to another anonymous array of
87 three elements. (The multidimensional syntax described later can be
88 used to access this. For example, after the above, "$arrayref->[2][1]"
89 would have the value "b".)
90 Taking a reference to an enumerated list is not the same as using
92 square brackets--instead it's the same as creating a list of
93 references!
94 @list = (\$a, \@b, \%c);
96 @list = \($a, @b, %c); # same thing!
97 As a special case, "\(@foo)" returns a list of references to the
99 contents of @foo, not a reference to @foo itself. Likewise for %foo,
100 except that the key references are to copies (since the keys are just
101 strings rather than full-fledged scalars).
102 Curly Brackets
104 A reference to an anonymous hash can be created using curly brackets:
106 $hashref = {
108 'Adam' => 'Eve',
109 'Clyde' => 'Bonnie',
110 };
111 Anonymous hash and array composers like these can be intermixed freely
113 to produce as complicated a structure as you want. The
114 multidimensional syntax described below works for these too. The
115 values above are literals, but variables and expressions would work
116 just as well, because assignment operators in Perl (even within local()
117 or my()) are executable statements, not compile-time declarations.
118 Because curly brackets (braces) are used for several other things
120 including BLOCKs, you may occasionally have to disambiguate braces at
121 the beginning of a statement by putting a "+" or a "return" in front so
122 that Perl realizes the opening brace isn't starting a BLOCK. The
123 economy and mnemonic value of using curlies is deemed worth this
124 occasional extra hassle.
125 For example, if you wanted a function to make a new hash and return a
127 reference to it, you have these options:
128 sub hashem { { @_ } } # silently wrong
130 sub hashem { +{ @_ } } # ok
131 sub hashem { return { @_ } } # ok
132 On the other hand, if you want the other meaning, you can do this:
134 sub showem { { @_ } } # ambiguous (currently ok,
136 # but may change)
137 sub showem { {; @_ } } # ok
138 sub showem { { return @_ } } # ok
139 The leading "+{" and "{;" always serve to disambiguate the expression
141 to mean either the HASH reference, or the BLOCK.
142 Anonymous Subroutines
144 A reference to an anonymous subroutine can be created by using "sub"
146 without a subname:
147 $coderef = sub { print "Boink!\n" };
149 Note the semicolon. Except for the code inside not being immediately
151 executed, a "sub {}" is not so much a declaration as it is an operator,
152 like "do{}" or "eval{}". (However, no matter how many times you
153 execute that particular line (unless you're in an eval("...")),
154 $coderef will still have a reference to the same anonymous subroutine.)
155 Anonymous subroutines act as closures with respect to my() variables,
157 that is, variables lexically visible within the current scope. Closure
158 is a notion out of the Lisp world that says if you define an anonymous
159 function in a particular lexical context, it pretends to run in that
160 context even when it's called outside the context.
161 In human terms, it's a funny way of passing arguments to a subroutine
163 when you define it as well as when you call it. It's useful for
164 setting up little bits of code to run later, such as callbacks. You
165 can even do object-oriented stuff with it, though Perl already provides
166 a different mechanism to do that--see perlobj.
167 You might also think of closure as a way to write a subroutine template
169 without using eval(). Here's a small example of how closures work:
170 sub newprint {
172 my $x = shift;
173 return sub { my $y = shift; print "$x, $y!\n"; };
174 }
175 $h = newprint("Howdy");
176 $g = newprint("Greetings");
177 # Time passes...
179 &$h("world");
181 &$g("earthlings");
182 This prints
184 Howdy, world!
186 Greetings, earthlings!
187 Note particularly that $x continues to refer to the value passed into
189 newprint() despite "my $x" having gone out of scope by the time the
190 anonymous subroutine runs. That's what a closure is all about.
191 This applies only to lexical variables, by the way. Dynamic variables
193 continue to work as they have always worked. Closure is not something
194 that most Perl programmers need trouble themselves about to begin with.
195 Constructors
197 References are often returned by special subroutines called
199 constructors. Perl objects are just references to a special type of
200 object that happens to know which package it's associated with.
201 Constructors are just special subroutines that know how to create that
202 association. They do so by starting with an ordinary reference, and it
203 remains an ordinary reference even while it's also being an object.
204 Constructors are often named new(). You can call them indirectly:
205 $objref = new Doggie( Tail => 'short', Ears => 'long' );
207 But that can produce ambiguous syntax in certain cases, so it's often
209 better to use the direct method invocation approach:
210 $objref = Doggie->new(Tail => 'short', Ears => 'long');
212 use Term::Cap;
214 $terminal = Term::Cap->Tgetent( { OSPEED => 9600 });
215 use Tk;
217 $main = MainWindow->new();
218 $menubar = $main->Frame(-relief => "raised",
219 -borderwidth => 2)
220 This indirect object syntax is only available when "use feature
222 "indirect"" is in effect, and that is not the case when "use v5.36" (or
223 higher) is requested, it is best to avoid indirect object syntax
224 entirely.
225 Autovivification
227 References of the appropriate type can spring into existence if you
229 dereference them in a context that assumes they exist. Because we
230 haven't talked about dereferencing yet, we can't show you any examples
231 yet.
232 Typeglob Slots
234 A reference can be created by using a special syntax, lovingly known as
236 the *foo{THING} syntax. *foo{THING} returns a reference to the THING
237 slot in *foo (which is the symbol table entry which holds everything
238 known as foo).
239 $scalarref = *foo{SCALAR};
241 $arrayref = *ARGV{ARRAY};
242 $hashref = *ENV{HASH};
243 $coderef = *handler{CODE};
244 $ioref = *STDIN{IO};
245 $globref = *foo{GLOB};
246 $formatref = *foo{FORMAT};
247 $globname = *foo{NAME}; # "foo"
248 $pkgname = *foo{PACKAGE}; # "main"
249 Most of these are self-explanatory, but *foo{IO} deserves special
251 attention. It returns the IO handle, used for file handles ("open" in
252 perlfunc), sockets ("socket" in perlfunc and "socketpair" in perlfunc),
253 and directory handles ("opendir" in perlfunc). For compatibility with
254 previous versions of Perl, *foo{FILEHANDLE} is a synonym for *foo{IO},
255 though it is discouraged, to encourage a consistent use of one name:
256 IO. On perls between v5.8 and v5.22, it will issue a deprecation
257 warning, but this deprecation has since been rescinded.
258 *foo{THING} returns undef if that particular THING hasn't been used
260 yet, except in the case of scalars. *foo{SCALAR} returns a reference
261 to an anonymous scalar if $foo hasn't been used yet. This might change
262 in a future release.
263 *foo{NAME} and *foo{PACKAGE} are the exception, in that they return
265 strings, rather than references. These return the package and name of
266 the typeglob itself, rather than one that has been assigned to it. So,
267 after "*foo=*Foo::bar", *foo will become "*Foo::bar" when used as a
268 string, but *foo{PACKAGE} and *foo{NAME} will continue to produce
269 "main" and "foo", respectively.
270 *foo{IO} is an alternative to the *HANDLE mechanism given in "Typeglobs
272 and Filehandles" in perldata for passing filehandles into or out of
273 subroutines, or storing into larger data structures. Its disadvantage
274 is that it won't create a new filehandle for you. Its advantage is
275 that you have less risk of clobbering more than you want to with a
276 typeglob assignment. (It still conflates file and directory handles,
277 though.) However, if you assign the incoming value to a scalar instead
278 of a typeglob as we do in the examples below, there's no risk of that
279 happening.
280 splutter(*STDOUT); # pass the whole glob
282 splutter(*STDOUT{IO}); # pass both file and dir handles
283 sub splutter {
285 my $fh = shift;
286 print $fh "her um well a hmmm\n";
287 }
288 $rec = get_rec(*STDIN); # pass the whole glob
290 $rec = get_rec(*STDIN{IO}); # pass both file and dir handles
291 sub get_rec {
293 my $fh = shift;
294 return scalar <$fh>;
295 }
296 Using References
298 That's it for creating references. By now you're probably dying to
299 know how to use references to get back to your long-lost data. There
300 are several basic methods.
301 Simple Scalar
303 Anywhere you'd put an identifier (or chain of identifiers) as part of a
305 variable or subroutine name, you can replace the identifier with a
306 simple scalar variable containing a reference of the correct type:
307 $bar = $$scalarref;
309 push(@$arrayref, $filename);
310 $$arrayref[0] = "January";
311 $$hashref{"KEY"} = "VALUE";
312 &$coderef(1,2,3);
313 print $globref "output\n";
314 It's important to understand that we are specifically not dereferencing
316 $arrayref[0] or $hashref{"KEY"} there. The dereference of the scalar
317 variable happens before it does any key lookups. Anything more
318 complicated than a simple scalar variable must use methods 2 or 3
319 below. However, a "simple scalar" includes an identifier that itself
320 uses method 1 recursively. Therefore, the following prints "howdy".
321 $refrefref = \\\"howdy";
323 print $$$$refrefref;
324 Block
326 Anywhere you'd put an identifier (or chain of identifiers) as part of a
328 variable or subroutine name, you can replace the identifier with a
329 BLOCK returning a reference of the correct type. In other words, the
330 previous examples could be written like this:
331 $bar = ${$scalarref};
333 push(@{$arrayref}, $filename);
334 ${$arrayref}[0] = "January";
335 ${$hashref}{"KEY"} = "VALUE";
336 &{$coderef}(1,2,3);
337 $globref->print("output\n"); # iff IO::Handle is loaded
338 Admittedly, it's a little silly to use the curlies in this case, but
340 the BLOCK can contain any arbitrary expression, in particular,
341 subscripted expressions:
342 &{ $dispatch{$index} }(1,2,3); # call correct routine
344 Because of being able to omit the curlies for the simple case of $$x,
346 people often make the mistake of viewing the dereferencing symbols as
347 proper operators, and wonder about their precedence. If they were,
348 though, you could use parentheses instead of braces. That's not the
349 case. Consider the difference below; case 0 is a short-hand version of
350 case 1, not case 2:
351 $$hashref{"KEY"} = "VALUE"; # CASE 0
353 ${$hashref}{"KEY"} = "VALUE"; # CASE 1
354 ${$hashref{"KEY"}} = "VALUE"; # CASE 2
355 ${$hashref->{"KEY"}} = "VALUE"; # CASE 3
356 Case 2 is also deceptive in that you're accessing a variable called
358 %hashref, not dereferencing through $hashref to the hash it's
359 presumably referencing. That would be case 3.
360 Arrow Notation
362 Subroutine calls and lookups of individual array elements arise often
364 enough that it gets cumbersome to use method 2. As a form of syntactic
365 sugar, the examples for method 2 may be written:
366 $arrayref->[0] = "January"; # Array element
368 $hashref->{"KEY"} = "VALUE"; # Hash element
369 $coderef->(1,2,3); # Subroutine call
370 The left side of the arrow can be any expression returning a reference,
372 including a previous dereference. Note that $array[$x] is not the same
373 thing as "$array->[$x]" here:
374 $array[$x]->{"foo"}->[0] = "January";
376 This is one of the cases we mentioned earlier in which references could
378 spring into existence when in an lvalue context. Before this
379 statement, $array[$x] may have been undefined. If so, it's
380 automatically defined with a hash reference so that we can look up
381 "{"foo"}" in it. Likewise "$array[$x]->{"foo"}" will automatically get
382 defined with an array reference so that we can look up "[0]" in it.
383 This process is called autovivification.
384 One more thing here. The arrow is optional between brackets
386 subscripts, so you can shrink the above down to
387 $array[$x]{"foo"}[0] = "January";
389 Which, in the degenerate case of using only ordinary arrays, gives you
391 multidimensional arrays just like C's:
392 $score[$x][$y][$z] += 42;
394 Well, okay, not entirely like C's arrays, actually. C doesn't know how
396 to grow its arrays on demand. Perl does.
397 Objects
399 If a reference happens to be a reference to an object, then there are
401 probably methods to access the things referred to, and you should
402 probably stick to those methods unless you're in the class package that
403 defines the object's methods. In other words, be nice, and don't
404 violate the object's encapsulation without a very good reason. Perl
405 does not enforce encapsulation. We are not totalitarians here. We do
406 expect some basic civility though.
407 Miscellaneous Usage
409 Using a string or number as a reference produces a symbolic reference,
411 as explained above. Using a reference as a number produces an integer
412 representing its storage location in memory. The only useful thing to
413 be done with this is to compare two references numerically to see
414 whether they refer to the same location.
415 if ($ref1 == $ref2) { # cheap numeric compare of references
417 print "refs 1 and 2 refer to the same thing\n";
418 }
419 Using a reference as a string produces both its referent's type,
421 including any package blessing as described in perlobj, as well as the
422 numeric address expressed in hex. The ref() operator returns just the
423 type of thing the reference is pointing to, without the address. See
424 "ref" in perlfunc for details and examples of its use.
425 The bless() operator may be used to associate the object a reference
427 points to with a package functioning as an object class. See perlobj.
428 A typeglob may be dereferenced the same way a reference can, because
430 the dereference syntax always indicates the type of reference desired.
431 So "${*foo}" and "${\$foo}" both indicate the same scalar variable.
432 Here's a trick for interpolating a subroutine call into a string:
434 print "My sub returned @{[mysub(1,2,3)]} that time.\n";
436 The way it works is that when the "@{...}" is seen in the double-quoted
438 string, it's evaluated as a block. The block creates a reference to an
439 anonymous array containing the results of the call to "mysub(1,2,3)".
440 So the whole block returns a reference to an array, which is then
441 dereferenced by "@{...}" and stuck into the double-quoted string. This
442 chicanery is also useful for arbitrary expressions:
443 print "That yields @{[$n + 5]} widgets\n";
445 Similarly, an expression that returns a reference to a scalar can be
447 dereferenced via "${...}". Thus, the above expression may be written
448 as:
449 print "That yields ${\($n + 5)} widgets\n";
451 Circular References
453 It is possible to create a "circular reference" in Perl, which can lead
454 to memory leaks. A circular reference occurs when two references
455 contain a reference to each other, like this:
456 my $foo = {};
458 my $bar = { foo => $foo };
459 $foo->{bar} = $bar;
460 You can also create a circular reference with a single variable:
462 my $foo;
464 $foo = \$foo;
465 In this case, the reference count for the variables will never reach 0,
467 and the references will never be garbage-collected. This can lead to
468 memory leaks.
469 Because objects in Perl are implemented as references, it's possible to
471 have circular references with objects as well. Imagine a TreeNode class
472 where each node references its parent and child nodes. Any node with a
473 parent will be part of a circular reference.
474 You can break circular references by creating a "weak reference". A
476 weak reference does not increment the reference count for a variable,
477 which means that the object can go out of scope and be destroyed. You
478 can weaken a reference with the "weaken" function exported by the
479 Scalar::Util module, or available as "builtin::weaken" directly in Perl
480 version 5.35.7 or later.
481 Here's how we can make the first example safer:
483 use Scalar::Util 'weaken';
485 my $foo = {};
487 my $bar = { foo => $foo };
488 $foo->{bar} = $bar;
489 weaken $foo->{bar};
491 The reference from $foo to $bar has been weakened. When the $bar
493 variable goes out of scope, it will be garbage-collected. The next time
494 you look at the value of the "$foo->{bar}" key, it will be "undef".
495 This action at a distance can be confusing, so you should be careful
497 with your use of weaken. You should weaken the reference in the
498 variable that will go out of scope first. That way, the longer-lived
499 variable will contain the expected reference until it goes out of
500 scope.
501 Symbolic references
503 We said that references spring into existence as necessary if they are
504 undefined, but we didn't say what happens if a value used as a
505 reference is already defined, but isn't a hard reference. If you use
506 it as a reference, it'll be treated as a symbolic reference. That is,
507 the value of the scalar is taken to be the name of a variable, rather
508 than a direct link to a (possibly) anonymous value.
509 People frequently expect it to work like this. So it does.
511 $name = "foo";
513 $$name = 1; # Sets $foo
514 ${$name} = 2; # Sets $foo
515 ${$name x 2} = 3; # Sets $foofoo
516 $name->[0] = 4; # Sets $foo[0]
517 @$name = (); # Clears @foo
518 &$name(); # Calls &foo()
519 $pack = "THAT";
520 ${"${pack}::$name"} = 5; # Sets $THAT::foo without eval
521 This is powerful, and slightly dangerous, in that it's possible to
523 intend (with the utmost sincerity) to use a hard reference, and
524 accidentally use a symbolic reference instead. To protect against
525 that, you can say
526 use strict 'refs';
528 and then only hard references will be allowed for the rest of the
530 enclosing block. An inner block may countermand that with
531 no strict 'refs';
533 Only package variables (globals, even if localized) are visible to
535 symbolic references. Lexical variables (declared with my()) aren't in
536 a symbol table, and thus are invisible to this mechanism. For example:
537 local $value = 10;
539 $ref = "value";
540 {
541 my $value = 20;
542 print $$ref;
543 }
544 This will still print 10, not 20. Remember that local() affects
546 package variables, which are all "global" to the package.
547 Not-so-symbolic references
549 Brackets around a symbolic reference can simply serve to isolate an
550 identifier or variable name from the rest of an expression, just as
551 they always have within a string. For example,
552 $push = "pop on ";
554 print "${push}over";
555 has always meant to print "pop on over", even though push is a reserved
557 word. This is generalized to work the same without the enclosing
558 double quotes, so that
559 print ${push} . "over";
561 and even
563 print ${ push } . "over";
565 will have the same effect. This construct is not considered to be a
567 symbolic reference when you're using strict refs:
568 use strict 'refs';
570 ${ bareword }; # Okay, means $bareword.
571 ${ "bareword" }; # Error, symbolic reference.
572 Similarly, because of all the subscripting that is done using single
574 words, the same rule applies to any bareword that is used for
575 subscripting a hash. So now, instead of writing
576 $hash{ "aaa" }{ "bbb" }{ "ccc" }
578 you can write just
580 $hash{ aaa }{ bbb }{ ccc }
582 and not worry about whether the subscripts are reserved words. In the
584 rare event that you do wish to do something like
585 $hash{ shift }
587 you can force interpretation as a reserved word by adding anything that
589 makes it more than a bareword:
590 $hash{ shift() }
592 $hash{ +shift }
593 $hash{ shift @_ }
594 The "use warnings" pragma or the -w switch will warn you if it
596 interprets a reserved word as a string. But it will no longer warn you
597 about using lowercase words, because the string is effectively quoted.
598 Pseudo-hashes: Using an array as a hash
600 Pseudo-hashes have been removed from Perl. The 'fields' pragma remains
601 available.
602 Function Templates
604 As explained above, an anonymous function with access to the lexical
605 variables visible when that function was compiled, creates a closure.
606 It retains access to those variables even though it doesn't get run
607 until later, such as in a signal handler or a Tk callback.
608 Using a closure as a function template allows us to generate many
610 functions that act similarly. Suppose you wanted functions named after
611 the colors that generated HTML font changes for the various colors:
612 print "Be ", red("careful"), "with that ", green("light");
614 The red() and green() functions would be similar. To create these,
616 we'll assign a closure to a typeglob of the name of the function we're
617 trying to build.
618 @colors = qw(red blue green yellow orange purple violet);
620 for my $name (@colors) {
621 no strict 'refs'; # allow symbol table manipulation
622 *$name = *{uc $name} = sub { "<FONT COLOR='$name'>@_</FONT>" };
623 }
624 Now all those different functions appear to exist independently. You
626 can call red(), RED(), blue(), BLUE(), green(), etc. This technique
627 saves on both compile time and memory use, and is less error-prone as
628 well, since syntax checks happen at compile time. It's critical that
629 any variables in the anonymous subroutine be lexicals in order to
630 create a proper closure. That's the reasons for the "my" on the loop
631 iteration variable.
632 This is one of the only places where giving a prototype to a closure
634 makes much sense. If you wanted to impose scalar context on the
635 arguments of these functions (probably not a wise idea for this
636 particular example), you could have written it this way instead:
637 *$name = sub ($) { "<FONT COLOR='$name'>$_[0]</FONT>" };
639 However, since prototype checking happens at compile time, the
641 assignment above happens too late to be of much use. You could address
642 this by putting the whole loop of assignments within a BEGIN block,
643 forcing it to occur during compilation.
644 Access to lexicals that change over time--like those in the "for" loop
646 above, basically aliases to elements from the surrounding lexical
647 scopes-- only works with anonymous subs, not with named subroutines.
648 Generally said, named subroutines do not nest properly and should only
649 be declared in the main package scope.
650 This is because named subroutines are created at compile time so their
652 lexical variables get assigned to the parent lexicals from the first
653 execution of the parent block. If a parent scope is entered a second
654 time, its lexicals are created again, while the nested subs still
655 reference the old ones.
656 Anonymous subroutines get to capture each time you execute the "sub"
658 operator, as they are created on the fly. If you are accustomed to
659 using nested subroutines in other programming languages with their own
660 private variables, you'll have to work at it a bit in Perl. The
661 intuitive coding of this type of thing incurs mysterious warnings about
662 "will not stay shared" due to the reasons explained above. For
663 example, this won't work:
664 sub outer {
666 my $x = $_[0] + 35;
667 sub inner { return $x * 19 } # WRONG
668 return $x + inner();
669 }
670 A work-around is the following:
672 sub outer {
674 my $x = $_[0] + 35;
675 local *inner = sub { return $x * 19 };
676 return $x + inner();
677 }
678 Now inner() can only be called from within outer(), because of the
680 temporary assignments of the anonymous subroutine. But when it does, it
681 has normal access to the lexical variable $x from the scope of outer()
682 at the time outer is invoked.
683 This has the interesting effect of creating a function local to another
685 function, something not normally supported in Perl.
686 Postfix Dereference Syntax
688 Beginning in v5.20.0, a postfix syntax for using references is
689 available. It behaves as described in "Using References", but instead
690 of a prefixed sigil, a postfixed sigil-and-star is used.
691 For example:
693 $r = \@a;
695 @b = $r->@*; # equivalent to @$r or @{ $r }
696 $r = [ 1, [ 2, 3 ], 4 ];
698 $r->[1]->@*; # equivalent to @{ $r->[1] }
699 In Perl 5.20 and 5.22, this syntax must be enabled with use feature
701 'postderef'. As of Perl 5.24, no feature declarations are required to
702 make it available.
703 Postfix dereference should work in all circumstances where block
705 (circumfix) dereference worked, and should be entirely equivalent.
706 This syntax allows dereferencing to be written and read entirely left-
707 to-right. The following equivalencies are defined:
708 $sref->$*; # same as ${ $sref }
710 $aref->@*; # same as @{ $aref }
711 $aref->$#*; # same as $#{ $aref }
712 $href->%*; # same as %{ $href }
713 $cref->&*; # same as &{ $cref }
714 $gref->**; # same as *{ $gref }
715 Note especially that "$cref->&*" is not equivalent to $cref->(), and
717 can serve different purposes.
718 Glob elements can be extracted through the postfix dereferencing
720 feature:
721 $gref->*{SCALAR}; # same as *{ $gref }{SCALAR}
723 Postfix array and scalar dereferencing can be used in interpolating
725 strings (double quotes or the "qq" operator), but only if the
726 "postderef_qq" feature is enabled. Interpolation of postfix array
727 highest index access ("->$#*") is also supported when the
728 "postderef_qq" feature is enabled.
729 Postfix Reference Slicing
731 Value slices of arrays and hashes may also be taken with postfix
732 dereferencing notation, with the following equivalencies:
733 $aref->@[ ... ]; # same as @$aref[ ... ]
735 $href->@{ ... }; # same as @$href{ ... }
736 Postfix key/value pair slicing, added in 5.20.0 and documented in the
738 Key/Value Hash Slices section of perldata, also behaves as expected:
739 $aref->%[ ... ]; # same as %$aref[ ... ]
741 $href->%{ ... }; # same as %$href{ ... }
742 As with postfix array, postfix value slice dereferencing can be used in
744 interpolating strings (double quotes or the "qq" operator), but only if
745 the "postderef_qq" feature is enabled.
746 Assigning to References
748 Beginning in v5.22.0, the referencing operator can be assigned to. It
749 performs an aliasing operation, so that the variable name referenced on
750 the left-hand side becomes an alias for the thing referenced on the
751 right-hand side:
752 \$a = \$b; # $a and $b now point to the same scalar
754 \&foo = \&bar; # foo() now means bar()
755 This syntax must be enabled with "use feature 'refaliasing'". It is
757 experimental, and will warn by default unless no warnings
758 'experimental::refaliasing' is in effect.
759 These forms may be assigned to, and cause the right-hand side to be
761 evaluated in scalar context:
762 \$scalar
764 \@array
765 \%hash
766 \&sub
767 \my $scalar
768 \my @array
769 \my %hash
770 \state $scalar # or @array, etc.
771 \our $scalar # etc.
772 \local $scalar # etc.
773 \local our $scalar # etc.
774 \$some_array[$index]
775 \$some_hash{$key}
776 \local $some_array[$index]
777 \local $some_hash{$key}
778 condition ? \$this : \$that[0] # etc.
779 Slicing operations and parentheses cause the right-hand side to be
781 evaluated in list context:
782 \@array[5..7]
784 (\@array[5..7])
785 \(@array[5..7])
786 \@hash{'foo','bar'}
787 (\@hash{'foo','bar'})
788 \(@hash{'foo','bar'})
789 (\$scalar)
790 \($scalar)
791 \(my $scalar)
792 \my($scalar)
793 (\@array)
794 (\%hash)
795 (\&sub)
796 \(&sub)
797 \($foo, @bar, %baz)
798 (\$foo, \@bar, \%baz)
799 Each element on the right-hand side must be a reference to a datum of
801 the right type. Parentheses immediately surrounding an array (and
802 possibly also "my"/"state"/"our"/"local") will make each element of the
803 array an alias to the corresponding scalar referenced on the right-hand
804 side:
805 \(@a) = \(@b); # @a and @b now have the same elements
807 \my(@a) = \(@b); # likewise
808 \(my @a) = \(@b); # likewise
809 push @a, 3; # but now @a has an extra element that @b lacks
810 \(@a) = (\$a, \$b, \$c); # @a now contains $a, $b, and $c
811 Combining that form with "local" and putting parentheses immediately
813 around a hash are forbidden (because it is not clear what they should
814 do):
815 \local(@array) = foo(); # WRONG
817 \(%hash) = bar(); # WRONG
818 Assignment to references and non-references may be combined in lists
820 and conditional ternary expressions, as long as the values on the
821 right-hand side are the right type for each element on the left, though
822 this may make for obfuscated code:
823 (my $tom, \my $dick, \my @harry) = (\1, \2, [1..3]);
825 # $tom is now \1
826 # $dick is now 2 (read-only)
827 # @harry is (1,2,3)
828 my $type = ref $thingy;
830 ($type ? $type eq 'ARRAY' ? \@foo : \$bar : $baz) = $thingy;
831 The "foreach" loop can also take a reference constructor for its loop
833 variable, though the syntax is limited to one of the following, with an
834 optional "my", "state", or "our" after the backslash:
835 \$s
837 \@a
838 \%h
839 \&c
840 No parentheses are permitted. This feature is particularly useful for
842 arrays-of-arrays, or arrays-of-hashes:
843 foreach \my @a (@array_of_arrays) {
845 frobnicate($a[0], $a[-1]);
846 }
847 foreach \my %h (@array_of_hashes) {
849 $h{gelastic}++ if $h{type} eq 'funny';
850 }
851 CAVEAT: Aliasing does not work correctly with closures. If you try to
853 alias lexical variables from an inner subroutine or "eval", the
854 aliasing will only be visible within that inner sub, and will not
855 affect the outer subroutine where the variables are declared. This
856 bizarre behavior is subject to change.
857 Declaring a Reference to a Variable
859 Beginning in v5.26.0, the referencing operator can come after "my",
860 "state", "our", or "local". This syntax must be enabled with "use
861 feature 'declared_refs'". It is experimental, and will warn by default
862 unless "no warnings 'experimental::refaliasing'" is in effect.
863 This feature makes these:
865 my \$x;
867 our \$y;
868 equivalent to:
870 \my $x;
872 \our $x;
873 It is intended mainly for use in assignments to references (see
875 "Assigning to References", above). It also allows the backslash to be
876 used on just some items in a list of declared variables:
877 my ($foo, \@bar, \%baz); # equivalent to: my $foo, \my(@bar, %baz);
879
881 You may not (usefully) use a reference as the key to a hash. It will
882 be converted into a string:
883 $x{ \$a } = $a;
885 If you try to dereference the key, it won't do a hard dereference, and
887 you won't accomplish what you're attempting. You might want to do
888 something more like
889 $r = \@a;
891 $x{ $r } = $r;
892 And then at least you can use the values(), which will be real refs,
894 instead of the keys(), which won't.
895 The standard Tie::RefHash module provides a convenient workaround to
897 this.
898
900 Besides the obvious documents, source code can be instructive. Some
901 pathological examples of the use of references can be found in the
902 t/op/ref.t regression test in the Perl source directory.
903 See also perldsc and perllol for how to use references to create
905 complex data structures, and perlootut and perlobj for how to use them
906 to create objects.
907perl v5.38.2 2023-11-30 PERLREF(1)