1unicode(3) Erlang Module Definition unicode(3)
2
6 unicode - Functions for converting Unicode characters.
7
9 This module contains functions for converting between different charac‐
10 ter representations. It converts between ISO Latin-1 characters and
11 Unicode characters, but it can also convert between different Unicode
12 encodings (like UTF-8, UTF-16, and UTF-32).
13 The default Unicode encoding in Erlang is in binaries UTF-8, which is
15 also the format in which built-in functions and libraries in OTP expect
16 to find binary Unicode data. In lists, Unicode data is encoded as inte‐
17 gers, each integer representing one character and encoded simply as the
18 Unicode code point for the character.
19 Other Unicode encodings than integers representing code points or UTF-8
21 in binaries are referred to as "external encodings". The ISO Latin-1
22 encoding is in binaries and lists referred to as latin1-encoding.
23 It is recommended to only use external encodings for communication with
25 external entities where this is required. When working inside the
26 Erlang/OTP environment, it is recommended to keep binaries in UTF-8
27 when representing Unicode characters. ISO Latin-1 encoding is supported
28 both for backward compatibility and for communication with external
29 entities not supporting Unicode character sets.
30 Programs should always operate on a normalized form and compare canoni‐
32 cal-equivalent Unicode characters as equal. All characters should thus
33 be normalized to one form once on the system borders. One of the fol‐
34 lowing functions can convert characters to their normalized forms char‐
35 acters_to_nfc_list/1, characters_to_nfc_binary/1, charac‐
36 ters_to_nfd_list/1 or characters_to_nfd_binary/1. For general text
37 characters_to_nfc_list/1 or characters_to_nfc_binary/1 is preferred,
38 and for identifiers one of the compatibility normalization functions,
39 such as characters_to_nfkc_list/1, is preferred for security reasons.
40 The normalization functions where introduced in OTP 20. Additional
41 information on normalization can be found in the Unicode FAQ.
42
44 encoding() =
45 latin1 | unicode | utf8 | utf16 |
46 {utf16, endian()} |
47 utf32 |
48 {utf32, endian()}
49 endian() = big | little
51 unicode_binary() = binary()
53 A binary() with characters encoded in the UTF-8 coding standard.
55 chardata() = charlist() | unicode_binary()
57 charlist() =
59 maybe_improper_list(char() | unicode_binary() | charlist(),
60 unicode_binary() | [])
61 external_unicode_binary() = binary()
63 A binary() with characters coded in a user-specified Unicode
65 encoding other than UTF-8 (that is, UTF-16 or UTF-32).
66 external_chardata() =
68 external_charlist() | external_unicode_binary()
69 external_charlist() =
71 maybe_improper_list(char() |
72 external_unicode_binary() |
73 external_charlist(),
74 external_unicode_binary() | [])
75 latin1_binary() = binary()
77 A binary() with characters coded in ISO Latin-1.
79 latin1_char() = byte()
81 An integer() representing a valid ISO Latin-1 character (0-255).
83 latin1_chardata() = latin1_charlist() | latin1_binary()
85 Same as iodata().
87 latin1_charlist() =
89 maybe_improper_list(latin1_char() |
90 latin1_binary() |
91 latin1_charlist(),
92 latin1_binary() | [])
93 Same as iolist().
95
97 bom_to_encoding(Bin) -> {Encoding, Length}
98 Types:
100 Bin = binary()
102 A binary() such that byte_size(Bin) >= 4.
103 Encoding =
104 latin1 | utf8 | {utf16, endian()} | {utf32, endian()}
105 Length = integer() >= 0
106 endian() = big | little
107 Checks for a UTF Byte Order Mark (BOM) in the beginning of a
109 binary. If the supplied binary Bin begins with a valid BOM for
110 either UTF-8, UTF-16, or UTF-32, the function returns the encod‐
111 ing identified along with the BOM length in bytes.
112 If no BOM is found, the function returns {latin1,0}.
114 characters_to_binary(Data) -> Result
116 Types:
118 Data = latin1_chardata() | chardata() | external_chardata()
120 Result =
121 binary() |
122 {error, binary(), RestData} |
123 {incomplete, binary(), binary()}
124 RestData = latin1_chardata() | chardata() | external_char‐
125 data()
126 Same as characters_to_binary(Data, unicode, unicode).
128 characters_to_binary(Data, InEncoding) -> Result
130 Types:
132 Data = latin1_chardata() | chardata() | external_chardata()
134 InEncoding = encoding()
135 Result =
136 binary() |
137 {error, binary(), RestData} |
138 {incomplete, binary(), binary()}
139 RestData = latin1_chardata() | chardata() | external_char‐
140 data()
141 Same as characters_to_binary(Data, InEncoding, unicode).
143 characters_to_binary(Data, InEncoding, OutEncoding) -> Result
145 Types:
147 Data = latin1_chardata() | chardata() | external_chardata()
149 InEncoding = OutEncoding = encoding()
150 Result =
151 binary() |
152 {error, binary(), RestData} |
153 {incomplete, binary(), binary()}
154 RestData = latin1_chardata() | chardata() | external_char‐
155 data()
156 Behaves as characters_to_list/2, but produces a binary instead
158 of a Unicode list.
159 InEncoding defines how input is to be interpreted if binaries
161 are present in Data
162 OutEncoding defines in what format output is to be generated.
164 Options:
166 unicode:
168 An alias for utf8, as this is the preferred encoding for
169 Unicode characters in binaries.
170 utf16:
172 An alias for {utf16,big}.
173 utf32:
175 An alias for {utf32,big}.
176 The atoms big and little denote big- or little-endian encoding.
178 Errors and exceptions occur as in characters_to_list/2, but the
180 second element in tuple error or incomplete is a binary() and
181 not a list().
182 characters_to_list(Data) -> Result
184 Types:
186 Data = latin1_chardata() | chardata() | external_chardata()
188 Result =
189 list() |
190 {error, list(), RestData} |
191 {incomplete, list(), binary()}
192 RestData = latin1_chardata() | chardata() | external_char‐
193 data()
194 Same as characters_to_list(Data, unicode).
196 characters_to_list(Data, InEncoding) -> Result
198 Types:
200 Data = latin1_chardata() | chardata() | external_chardata()
202 InEncoding = encoding()
203 Result =
204 list() |
205 {error, list(), RestData} |
206 {incomplete, list(), binary()}
207 RestData = latin1_chardata() | chardata() | external_char‐
208 data()
209 Converts a possibly deep list of integers and binaries into a
211 list of integers representing Unicode characters. The binaries
212 in the input can have characters encoded as one of the follow‐
213 ing:
214 * ISO Latin-1 (0-255, one character per byte). Here, case
216 parameter InEncoding is to be specified as latin1.
217 * One of the UTF-encodings, which is specified as parameter
219 InEncoding.
220 Note that integers in the list always represent code points
222 regardless of InEncoding passed. If InEncoding latin1 is passed,
223 only code points < 256 are allowed; otherwise, all valid unicode
224 code points are allowed.
225 If InEncoding is latin1, parameter Data corresponds to the
227 iodata() type, but for unicode, parameter Data can contain inte‐
228 gers > 255 (Unicode characters beyond the ISO Latin-1 range),
229 which makes it invalid as iodata().
230 The purpose of the function is mainly to convert combinations of
232 Unicode characters into a pure Unicode string in list represen‐
233 tation for further processing. For writing the data to an exter‐
234 nal entity, the reverse function characters_to_binary/3 comes in
235 handy.
236 Option unicode is an alias for utf8, as this is the preferred
238 encoding for Unicode characters in binaries. utf16 is an alias
239 for {utf16,big} and utf32 is an alias for {utf32,big}. The atoms
240 big and little denote big- or little-endian encoding.
241 If the data cannot be converted, either because of illegal Uni‐
243 code/ISO Latin-1 characters in the list, or because of invalid
244 UTF encoding in any binaries, an error tuple is returned. The
245 error tuple contains the tag error, a list representing the
246 characters that could be converted before the error occurred and
247 a representation of the characters including and after the
248 offending integer/bytes. The last part is mostly for debugging,
249 as it still constitutes a possibly deep or mixed list, or both,
250 not necessarily of the same depth as the original data. The
251 error occurs when traversing the list and whatever is left to
252 decode is returned "as is".
253 However, if the input Data is a pure binary, the third part of
255 the error tuple is guaranteed to be a binary as well.
256 Errors occur for the following reasons:
258 * Integers out of range.
260 If InEncoding is latin1, an error occurs whenever an integer
262 > 255 is found in the lists.
263 If InEncoding is of a Unicode type, an error occurs whenever
265 either of the following is found:
266 * An integer > 16#10FFFF (the maximum Unicode character)
268 * An integer in the range 16#D800 to 16#DFFF (invalid range
270 reserved for UTF-16 surrogate pairs)
271 * Incorrect UTF encoding.
273 If InEncoding is one of the UTF types, the bytes in any
275 binaries must be valid in that encoding.
276 Errors can occur for various reasons, including the follow‐
278 ing:
279 * "Pure" decoding errors (like the upper bits of the bytes
281 being wrong).
282 * The bytes are decoded to a too large number.
284 * The bytes are decoded to a code point in the invalid Uni‐
286 code range.
287 * Encoding is "overlong", meaning that a number should have
289 been encoded in fewer bytes.
290 The case of a truncated UTF is handled specially, see the
292 paragraph about incomplete binaries below.
293 If InEncoding is latin1, binaries are always valid as long
295 as they contain whole bytes, as each byte falls into the
296 valid ISO Latin-1 range.
297 A special type of error is when no actual invalid integers or
299 bytes are found, but a trailing binary() consists of too few
300 bytes to decode the last character. This error can occur if
301 bytes are read from a file in chunks or if binaries in other
302 ways are split on non-UTF character boundaries. An incomplete
303 tuple is then returned instead of the error tuple. It consists
304 of the same parts as the error tuple, but the tag is incomplete
305 instead of error and the last element is always guaranteed to be
306 a binary consisting of the first part of a (so far) valid UTF
307 character.
308 If one UTF character is split over two consecutive binaries in
310 the Data, the conversion succeeds. This means that a character
311 can be decoded from a range of binaries as long as the whole
312 range is specified as input without errors occurring.
313 Example:
315 decode_data(Data) ->
317 case unicode:characters_to_list(Data,unicode) of
318 {incomplete,Encoded, Rest} ->
319 More = get_some_more_data(),
320 Encoded ++ decode_data([Rest, More]);
321 {error,Encoded,Rest} ->
322 handle_error(Encoded,Rest);
323 List ->
324 List
325 end.
326 However, bit strings that are not whole bytes are not allowed,
328 so a UTF character must be split along 8-bit boundaries to ever
329 be decoded.
330 A badarg exception is thrown for the following cases:
332 * Any parameters are of the wrong type.
334 * The list structure is invalid (a number as tail).
336 * The binaries do not contain whole bytes (bit strings).
338 characters_to_nfc_list(CD :: chardata()) ->
340 [char()] | {error, [char()], chardata()}
341 Converts a possibly deep list of characters and binaries into a
343 Normalized Form of canonical equivalent Composed characters
344 according to the Unicode standard.
345 Any binaries in the input must be encoded with utf8 encoding.
347 The result is a list of characters.
349 3> unicode:characters_to_nfc_list([<<"abc..a">>,[778],$a,[776],$o,[776]]).
351 "abc..åäö"
352 characters_to_nfc_binary(CD :: chardata()) ->
355 unicode_binary() |
356 {error, unicode_binary(), chardata()}
357 Converts a possibly deep list of characters and binaries into a
359 Normalized Form of canonical equivalent Composed characters
360 according to the Unicode standard.
361 Any binaries in the input must be encoded with utf8 encoding.
363 The result is an utf8 encoded binary.
365 4> unicode:characters_to_nfc_binary([<<"abc..a">>,[778],$a,[776],$o,[776]]).
367 <<"abc..åäö"/utf8>>
368 characters_to_nfd_list(CD :: chardata()) ->
371 [char()] | {error, [char()], chardata()}
372 Converts a possibly deep list of characters and binaries into a
374 Normalized Form of canonical equivalent Decomposed characters
375 according to the Unicode standard.
376 Any binaries in the input must be encoded with utf8 encoding.
378 The result is a list of characters.
380 1> unicode:characters_to_nfd_list("abc..åäö").
382 [97,98,99,46,46,97,778,97,776,111,776]
383 characters_to_nfd_binary(CD :: chardata()) ->
386 unicode_binary() |
387 {error, unicode_binary(), chardata()}
388 Converts a possibly deep list of characters and binaries into a
390 Normalized Form of canonical equivalent Decomposed characters
391 according to the Unicode standard.
392 Any binaries in the input must be encoded with utf8 encoding.
394 The result is an utf8 encoded binary.
396 2> unicode:characters_to_nfd_binary("abc..åäö").
398 <<97,98,99,46,46,97,204,138,97,204,136,111,204,136>>
399 characters_to_nfkc_list(CD :: chardata()) ->
402 [char()] |
403 {error, [char()], chardata()}
404 Converts a possibly deep list of characters and binaries into a
406 Normalized Form of compatibly equivalent Composed characters
407 according to the Unicode standard.
408 Any binaries in the input must be encoded with utf8 encoding.
410 The result is a list of characters.
412 3> unicode:characters_to_nfkc_list([<<"abc..a">>,[778],$a,[776],$o,[776],[65299,65298]]).
414 "abc..åäö32"
415 characters_to_nfkc_binary(CD :: chardata()) ->
418 unicode_binary() |
419 {error, unicode_binary(), chardata()}
420 Converts a possibly deep list of characters and binaries into a
422 Normalized Form of compatibly equivalent Composed characters
423 according to the Unicode standard.
424 Any binaries in the input must be encoded with utf8 encoding.
426 The result is an utf8 encoded binary.
428 4> unicode:characters_to_nfkc_binary([<<"abc..a">>,[778],$a,[776],$o,[776],[65299,65298]]).
430 <<"abc..åäö32"/utf8>>
431 characters_to_nfkd_list(CD :: chardata()) ->
434 [char()] |
435 {error, [char()], chardata()}
436 Converts a possibly deep list of characters and binaries into a
438 Normalized Form of compatibly equivalent Decomposed characters
439 according to the Unicode standard.
440 Any binaries in the input must be encoded with utf8 encoding.
442 The result is a list of characters.
444 1> unicode:characters_to_nfkd_list(["abc..åäö",[65299,65298]]).
446 [97,98,99,46,46,97,778,97,776,111,776,51,50]
447 characters_to_nfkd_binary(CD :: chardata()) ->
450 unicode_binary() |
451 {error, unicode_binary(), chardata()}
452 Converts a possibly deep list of characters and binaries into a
454 Normalized Form of compatibly equivalent Decomposed characters
455 according to the Unicode standard.
456 Any binaries in the input must be encoded with utf8 encoding.
458 The result is an utf8 encoded binary.
460 2> unicode:characters_to_nfkd_binary(["abc..åäö",[65299,65298]]).
462 <<97,98,99,46,46,97,204,138,97,204,136,111,204,136,51,50>>
463 encoding_to_bom(InEncoding) -> Bin
466 Types:
468 Bin = binary()
470 A binary() such that byte_size(Bin) >= 4.
471 InEncoding = encoding()
472 Creates a UTF Byte Order Mark (BOM) as a binary from the sup‐
474 plied InEncoding. The BOM is, if supported at all, expected to
475 be placed first in UTF encoded files or messages.
476 The function returns <<>> for latin1 encoding, as there is no
478 BOM for ISO Latin-1.
479 Notice that the BOM for UTF-8 is seldom used, and it is really
481 not a byte order mark. There are obviously no byte order issues
482 with UTF-8, so the BOM is only there to differentiate UTF-8
483 encoding from other UTF formats.
484Ericsson AB stdlib 3.12.1 unicode(3)